Crusades and their impact on Western Europe

HIS 1111- Test 1- Make up Exam Spring 19 Your responses will be typed (font 12 only), single spaced (you may double space between questions). If you use any ource other than the textk or instructor's lecture notes, you must cite the source in your vesponses. Wikipedia Is NOT an acceptable source. Total: 7 questions, 100 points The following question Is required of all students. 10 points 1 - Define the following tem. Be cateful to define these terms precisely as to present content/ Cite your sources if not from the textbook or lecture notes! Paleolithic Ate Cuneiform Malat Ziggurat arete Hubris agora helot tyrant Septuagint 2 - From the following questions, your choice of 1 question. Label your responses! 10 points a. What is Western Civilization, Its origins and important features? b. Compare the advantages of living in the Nile Valley with that of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley. Did the Nile Valley lack any resources available in Mesopotamia? 3 - From the following questions, your choice of 2 questions. label your response115 points each J. Of the contributions made by the Phoenicians, which was the most important contribution to Western Civilization? Why Is this contribution so important? b. Which Ideas about religion and the world distinguished Jews from their contemporaries? c. Zoroastrianism was presented as a precursor to Monotheism. What principles Seen in this belief system are found in other religions emerging in this same region? 4- From the following questions, your choice of 2 questions. Lebo/ your responses! 15 points each a. How did geography shape the rise of ancient Greek society? b. We spoke in class of reformers such as Solon. Lyouigus, and Pericles. Choose one of these men and discuss his contributions. c. Discuss the ideals embodied in Homer's Mod. d. What did the Olympic games indicate about Hellenic culture?

5 - From the following question, your choke of 1 question. Label your response. 20 points a. In which of the ancient societies, studied thus far, would the role of women be seen most positively? Give examples in your comparative response! It Discuss the historic significance and contributions of Alexander. son of Phillip II of Macedon. Be sure to address whether Alexander was an historic hero or villain in your response.

Solution

Crusades and their impact on Western Europe

Submitted to:

Submitted by:

 Vocabulary:

1.      Missi Dominici:

Missi Dominici was the administrators who were sent by emperor Charlemagne, in different parts of Frankish kingdom in early middle ages, to ensure loyalty, justice and royal edicts throughout their empire.

2.      Common law:

It is a body of law which is derived from judicial decisions; it was named this way because it was common for every king’s court all across England to follow those common rules.

3.      Quadrivium:

A Latin word means four ways. Used for those 4 subjects which have been attributed to Cassiodorus in the early 6^th century. Quadrivium consists of geometry, music, astronomy and arithmetic.

4.      Manga Carta:

It is a term used for a document, a charter of liberties which was signed in 1215 by King John after negotiations with his nobleman and his French scots allies and Runnymede.

5.      Treaty of Verdun:

This was one of the first of treaties which divided Carolingian empire into three kingdoms, in August 843 this treaty was signed at Verdun-sur-Meuse and ended three-year-old Carolingian civil war.

6.      Petrine doctrine:

This is a Catholic belief that Jesus gives the apostle authority on earth in order to lead his church and this spiritual authority is passed on to pope.

7.      Arianism:

It was a great theological movement in Roman Christian empire in the 4^th and 5^th centuries; it was a nontrinitarian Christological doctrine which provides a belief that Jesus is Son of God.

8.      Hijra:

It is a term used for eunuchs or intersex people, who are devoted to Buhuchara Mata; which is considered a version of the Indian mother goddess. While hijras are believed to be vehicles of power of the Goddess.

9.      Jihad:

Can be termed as holy warfare which a person fought on behalf of Islam. It is considered as the religious duty by Muslims. Some of the time it can also be done by an individual as a personal struggle in devotion to Islam because it is related to inner control and self-regulation.

10.  Ordeal:

The ordeal is a primitive measure which is mainly used to determine guilt and innocence by doing dangerous and painful tests on the accused which are said to be under control of supernatural powers.

11.  Fatwa (sp var):

 It is a legal opinion, given by recognized authorities in order to response a question asked by an individual or any judge. 

12.  Serf:

Medieval surfs were unfree labourers, who worked in the land of a landowner in return of physical or legal protection. Serfs were not counted as slaves because only their labour will be bought.

13.  Mendicant orders:

These are Roman Catholic religious orders which assumes a vow of poverty and support a person in charitable practices (Anne, 2016).

14.  Inquisition:

It was a type of government institution in Catholic churches with a goal of eliminating heresy. Inquisition was started in the 12^th century in order to combat religious dissent.

15.  Gothic architecture:

This style was flourished in high and late middle ages, widely used in cathedrals and churches, developed in Romanesque architecture and get prosper in Renaissance architecture.

16.  Wars of the Roses:

A series of English civil war fought from 1455 to 1487, which affect the government of Tudors, mainly fought in two houses; Lancaster which was associated with red roses and the York with the white rose symbol (Anthony, 017).

17.  Justification by faith:

 In Christian theory justification is an act of God, removing the guilt of sin and making a sinner righteous at the same time. According to Martin Luther, justification by faith means seeing a person righteous before God, accomplished by having faith in Jesus as saviour. Also, it means that a person is not made righteous in front of God due to their good or bad deeds and no one is allowed to get justified by this way.

18.  Simony:

It is a form of buying church offices and holy orders, this term was unknown at first 3 centuries, but this becomes familiar when the church started having positions of wealth and influence of bestowing.

19.  Huguenots:

It is a term used for French protestants of 16^th and 17^th century which followed the teaching of John Calvin. These people were victimized by the Catholic government during the violent period; they fled from country after creating Huguenot settlements. 

20.  Indulgences:

In the roman catholic church, this is a remission of temporal punishments due to a sin which may consist earthly sufferings or time after death in purgatory.

21.  Jesuits:

People who are member Jesus society, which is a roman catholic order for religious men due to their missionary, educational and charitable works. This was a leading force in modernizing the church (J., 2018)

22.  Jan Hus:

Jan Hus was bohemian reformer; whose work was significant in era of medieval. He predicts about Reformation in full century. He was considered guilty of heresy, although he was considered guilty throughout his life due to controversy of Schism.

23.  Predestination:

A doctrine which says, God, planned every event, he chose those whom he wants to be saved. Predestination is different from determinism and fatalism, subjected to human moral will but it also teaches that salvation is due to eternal God.

24.  Hundred year’s war:

 A series of disputes which includes the legitimate questions succession of the French crown (Clifford, 2018). This struggle involves many generations of English and French claimants and actually engage them for 100 years.

25.  Transubstantiation:

In Roman Catholicism first called transubstantiation in the 12^th century which focus on saving the literal truth of Christ’s presence along with putting emphasis on the fact that there is no change in pragmatic appearances of bread and wine.

26.  Humanism:

Humanism referred to a system of education, in 13^th and 14^th century this system was originated in northern Italy. Later that theory expands in Europe and England as well. Many philosophies of human realm and believes are components of this theory.

27.  Babylonian captivity:

A period in Jewish history in which a number of people from Judah kingdom were captives in Babylonia which were permitted to return Judah after the fall of Babylon (Daniel, 2015).

28.  Counter-reformation:

This was the period of Catholic resurgence which was the response of protestant reformation.

29.  95 theses:

These are the propositions of the debate associated with indulgences questions which were posted on the door of Schlosskirche by Martin Luther; his concepts changed cultural and religious attributes of the western Europe.

30.  Peace of Augsburg:

It was a temporary settlement of religious conflicts which arise due to Reformation in the Holy Roman Empire. In this settlement, every prince had to decide what he wants to prevail in his lands from Lutheranism and Roman Catholicism.

 

Beginning of the crusades:

                Crusades was the series of religious wars, which takes place between Christians and Muslims due to secure control of holy sites which were considered devotional by both religious groups (Manal & Teller, 2016). These series cover almost 8 major crusades which occur during 1096-1291. These crusades were organized by Christians of western Europe; their key objective was to check the spread of Islam and to recapture control of their holy land. Many participants took part in this practice as an atonement of their sins.  The first crusade was led by Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Bouillon, huge of Vermandois and Robert of Flanders. People usually followed hermit and peter. Four great armies of Christians left the Byzantine empire in 1096. Although these crusades resulted in the defeat of European but they successfully extended the reach of their civilization and Christianity, roman catholic church’s wealth was increased whereas the power of the pope was also raised at the end of crusades.

 These crusades were history-changing events; this affect Europe significantly in many ways. In the result of these crusades, a renew faith spread in all Christians, they get to know about the difference between rich and poor, serf and noble. Muslim world’s ideas, food habits, medication, language inventions and many more things had a deep effect on people of Europe which were slowly emerging out of barbarian ages. Exchange of ideas and knowledge with the eastern world become the keystone of the age of Exploration and European Renaissance and that helped Western Europe to rule the world. Jerusalem arrested in the first Crusade by Europe made the Europeans stronger that begin to massacring the cities with Muslim and Jewish population the mascaras did not stop here and in 1098 Bohemond encourage to Turkish traitor to open the bridge of Antioch’ bridge-gate (Costina, 2016). The soldiers spread into the Christian community and killed thousands of enemy soldiers along with the innocent citizens. But they did not succeed in fortified the citadel of the city. After a few months, the Turkish army comes to the city in an attempt to make their hold at this region, but they were defeated by the Europeans and had to surrender. After Islamic defeated the forces and conquered the Christian holy land, although these crusades never achieved their original goals which were the returning to holy lands to control of Christians (Peter, 2018). It is still considered ad a major turning point which affects the thinking of western people. Impact of the middle east and the Muslim world is quite significant as this was very first attempt of Christian community against expansion of another religion. That attempt in return mould their point of view of Muslims in the west. All in all, crusades have a positive impact on western European, they learned a lot of form Muslims, and make significant changes in their economy, politics and their educational backgrounds.

Humanism:

Humanism is ethical and philosophical stance, focus on values and agencies of human being which collectively and individually effects the thinking practice of a person which changes his attributes about superstitious things. The humanists would agree with the ideas like there are no supernatural beings, science provides the only source of knowledge about this universe, and the material universe is the only thing which exists (Michael, 2018). They also believe there is no afterlife, everyone lives once and human can live an ethical life without any religious belief. Those people derive their code of conduct from past lessons and history experience. The change in attributes is just because of a connection with different religions. During the era of crusades, European were not much familiar with this approach; they learn the different school of thoughts from people with different believes.

Humanists support the concept of democracy, which separates the religion and government, and that approach opposes theocracy and it’s all forms. Humanists of that age believe in freedom of thinking and believe; they do not impose their religious beliefs on others. The choice of their governance which was not influenced by the west, they do not permit to engage others in religious indoctrination (Macan, 2017). All these practices were learnt by Muslims during their interaction with them in the age of crusades.

The Renaissance:

Renaissance means the rebirth and renewal of western Europe which recovers from the dark ages and the plague; it was the fervent period of European culture, art, political and economic reincarnated. People at that time lost their interest and believed in churches; they started thinking closely about human beings. 

One of the main reasons behind the Renaissance is the emergence of secular curiosity. Throughout the federal period of western Europe, the main source of their education was churches; even kings were not literate merely. And that means that education at that time was non-secular. A combination of different factors led to the decline of feudalism. Another reason for the Renaissance was, coupled printing press with humanism, that becomes the basis of their art and literature. Printing press technology leads them to make their text reproduction easy (Erwin, 2018). Impact of the black death was another crucial reason behind the need of Renaissance, that was carried out by merchant ships to Sicily. Plague and its effects had a bad impact on their political structure which needs to be changed, which was done successfully, their leaders sought out different ideas of government which help them rule and that also encourage trade and learning in the Renaissance.

Renaissance humanism was an intellectual movement in Europe. It was started from the later middle age and then continued to early modern period. German historian was identified as the first Renaissance humanist. Renaissance period was the era of classical learning which bloomed in Europe in the 14^th century; crusades help in laying the ground for this learning, due to increased European contact with the Muslim world. Not only contact, but crusades also allow a proper interaction between these two regions. During the crusades of the 11^th and 12^th century, there was a group in the region of Venice which was created by European-run areas. These include Palestine and parts of Asia minor. Their region had the text of Aristotelian, which they later translated in Latin and that plays an important role in bringing new thoughts in Europe.

·         Before crusades, Art and intellectual activity were only focused on bible and church documents, but later, artists and thinkers of Europe started focusing on theories of Aristotle and text of other Roman authors. They started depicting scenes from the classical methodology. The development of art in the renaissance period requires money and that gap was also filled by crusades by fostering improvements in their transportation system and trading practices all over Europe and Asia.

·         Connection with the Arab world during crusades and other interactions helps in shifting Islamic advances in science and mathematics to western Europe which allows laying ground for the mastery in emersion of the scientific method. This connection in the Muslim world and western Europe lead to improve thinking of scholars and they discover many new subjects and theories.

·         Crusades provide an opportunity to rediscover Greek philosophy through connection with Greek texts.

·         Crusades helps in the development of secular governments which challenged the religious leadership power and that directly lead to challenging Catholicism through Reformation. 

The Reformation:

                The Reformation was spread to Europe countries in the 16^th century; it can be said that it was a protest against the secular values derived from the Renaissance. The world of the late medieval Roman Catholic church started from the 16^th century which reforms and emerges in complex one. The church was particularly following the office of the papacy which was deeply rooted in western Europe’s political life. Crusades bring some innovation in their set of rules. Also, they experienced a rise in wealth and power of the church. The Catholic church also created a myth that people can get an entry in heaven through crusades; they said that people who participate in these wars would be sent to heaven directly and that would be a penalty of their sins (Christopher, 2018). Catholic church flourished the idea of creating a whole new system of paid indulgences which refer to the situation which contributed to the emergence of Reformation. The corruption of religious orders as well as cynical abuse of machinery of church triggered a crusade which demanded the reform. This reform also provoked to decide a separate path. Ans that is when in 1517, Augustinian monk Martin Luther protested against the indulgence’s sale. He himself obliged to extend his doctrinal arguments till he denies the authority of the pope.

Martin Luther believes in the idea that salvation is associated with faith only while acting on this believe he wrote disputation of the power and efficiency of indulgences which are known as 95 theses. Wittenberg castle church door was nailed with the writing of 95 theses.  Luther chosen to attack the source of papal revenue, he pronounced two believes in his theses; he said that the Bible is key for every religious matter, it covers every detail of life. Also, he clarifies, people only reach redemption due to their own choice and, no one has the right to make them chose this path because of their sins. First two theses from 95 Theses were about his concept while rest 93 were discussion upon those two elements.  Although these ideas already have been present at that time, Martin just redefined them for religious reformation. After his writings, the church was divided, people accepted Protestantism within days which was totally molded by concepts of Luther.

Reformation recreate art; they were mostly seemed to inspire by the humanists. They made their art with more texture and depth because they studied the human body deeply; their nudes get more popularity (Jonathan, 2015).They mainly learn about sculptures and related materials; most of their art consists of human figures which are done with perfection.

Renaissance affected European education a lot and Jesuits play an important part in this filed. Jesuits were people who were member of Jesus society, which is a roman catholic order for religious men due to their missionary, educational and charitable works because of Jesuits chose education and scholarship as the centre of their spiritual activity. That practice made them have contacts with educational specialists and advisors and that is why they considered themselves as educators.  After learning they worked in different regions, there were almost 1,000 Jesuits which offer their services in Africa, Europe and Asia. 

Bibliography

Anne, D. (2016). Introduction: The Augustinians, the Mendicant Orders, and Early-Renaissance Art. In Art and the Augustinian Order in Early Renaissance Italy, 19-34.

Anthony, G. (017). The wars of the Roses. Routledge.

Christopher, H. (2018). Reformation to industrial revolution 1530-1780. Verso Books.

Clifford, R. (2018). The Military Revolutions of the Hundred Years War 1. In The Military Revolution Debate, 55-94.

Costina, S. (2016). The Evolution of the Concept of Human Rights on an International Level." . Research and Science Today 11 no. 1, 73-82.

Daniel, S. (2015). The religion of the landless The social context of the Babylonian exile. Wipf and Stock Publishers.

Erwin, P. (2018). Renaissance and renascences in western art. Routledge.

J., C. (2018). The Jesuits 1534-1921. BoD–Books on Demand.

Jonathan, P. (2015). The crusades A complete history. History Today 65 no. 5, 2-32.

Macan, L. (2017). Giorgio Giulio Clovio-Artist from Vinodol in European Humanisam. In Kršćanstvo u kulturi-međusobni utjecaji. Znanstveni simpozij povodom 70 obljetnice otvaranja Sjemeništa i Visoke bogoslovne škole u Rijeci, 201.

Manal, G., & Teller, J. (2016). Deriving cultural heritage values: the use of social media. Old and New Media for the Image of the Landscape, 11.

Michael, N. (2018). The history of science and the new humanism. Routledge.

Peter, J. (2018). The Mongols and the West 1221-1410. Routledge.